ALEXANDER’S MARCH TOWARDS INDIA

     ALEXANDER’S MARCH TOWARDS INDIA

 

Alexander’s March towards India began after he had conquered Persia and established almost complete control over  Asia Minor. The most turning point in Alexander’s  further march towards other territories occurred when he won the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE), also known as the Battle of Abela.  This led to the great invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire which covered a vast area even outside Persia. 

            By the time of the above-mentioned victory Alexander had come to know  the fall of  Cyrus the Great (600-530 BCE), Persian King  Darius I (Died 487 B.C.), Darius II, the king of the Persian empire (Dies 404 BC in Babylonia) and Darius III , called Codomannus by the Greeks.

            Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 B.C.

            Achaemenid Empire also extended up to several parts of India including Gandhara and Sind which should be comprehended as “Indus Valley”; and the territories of the north-west of the Kashmir valley.

   The facts relating to the Achaemenid Empire in India are confirmed by the depictions including those  of Indian soldiers at Naqsh-e-Rostan on the tombs of Darius I, II and III.

            The Persian rulers used the Indian soldiers and other logistics in the wars fought by them outside India.

            The Indian kings under their control were called satraps, literally meaning a provincial governor or a subordinate local ruler.  However, Indian histories gave them a better name  and called them vice-regents.

            It is uncontroversial that during the Achaemenid Empire, Indian territories which formed parts of this empire, progressed  a good deal as far as public welfare, law and order and justice are concerned.

            What is pertinent for us is the arrival of Alexander in India at this period of  ancient history (327 BC – 326 BC).

  As we have already stated , Indian kings like Ambhi Kumar of Gandhara behaved unpatriotically and instead of facing the aggressor with the human and military force at  his command stretched a friendly and supportive hand to Alexander.  In this embarrassing  situation, it was Maharaja Porus, the true Kshtriya Sabharwal, who challenged the indomitable Alexander and fought a battle whose  final result  regarding  who won and who lost the battle of Jhelum is still controversial. However,  we whole-heartedly  salute Maharaja Porus for abiding by  the qualities of a brave king and according to his  kingly dharma expected of a true Kshtriya.

MAHARAJA PORUS : THE PRIDE OF KSHATRIYAS

 

MAHARAJA PORUS :  THE PRIDE OF KSHATRIYAS

  

                          
                      The battle of Kurukshetra ended in the fall and annihilation of the Kaurvas in spite of the support they acquired by them  of several chiefs of the Punjab clans like Jayadratha of Sindhu-Sanvira, Shakuni of Gandhara, Sudaksina of Kambojas, Susama of Trigarta, etc. Only Abhisara (Poonch-Rajori) stood on the side of the Pandavas.  The result of the fall of the Kaurvas defeat was their total demoralization and the rise of confusion and anarchy in the Punjab as well as North-west areas.

                        For our purpose it is important to mention that there is a reference in the Mahabharata  about  Pauravas  as having an on-going connection with the land of  Jhelum which developed into a full-fledged kingdom under Maharaja Porus in the fourth century B.C.

                        It is also true  that after the fall of the Kurus, some Persian and Iranian clans entered the Punjab during the reign of Achaemenians. He Persians settled in Takshila and eastern Gandhara but later on circumstances compelled them to move out to settle in the areas between the Ravi and the Beas rivers. Since this territory became the settlement of indisciplined foreigners and unlawful indigenous groups, crime like robberies and murders began to flourish. Predatory associations emerged under the umbrella of Achaemenids. While Strabo says that there were about 500 towns and cities between the Jhelum and the Beas rivers, Panini puts their number as 750.

Whereas there were several warrior groups in the North-west, the Mahabharata includes the Brahamanas called Goplava among the Kashtriyas and the Rajanyas. Panini suggests that such groups organized themselves into military associations, some of whom encouraged caste-based assemblages.

It is  worth mentioning  that those kshtriyas whose surnames are: Anands, Bhasins, Chadhas, Kohlis, Sethis, Sabharwals, Chandhoks, Sahnis, Suris, etc., were known as the Rajanyas i.e. the members of the royal families.

Panini also mentions a number of tribal units like Virka (now Virks), Dhartteya (now Dattas), Variteya (now Batras), etc.

All the above-mentioned groups lived an organized life, were dexterous, diligent, tough and always ready to play the role of fighters and warriors.

Panini also mentions two other groups of Madra state, Aparamadra, settled in the Gujarat district between the Jhelum and the Chenab rivers, and Purvamadra, inhabiting between the Chenab and the Ravi in Gujranwala and Sialkot districts. According to him the first loyalty of these groups was to their motherland, a quality of which Maharajas Porus was a perfect embodiment.

At the time of Alexander’s invasion, apart from the Kshtriyas whose surnames have already mentioned, there were Rohitakas, descended from Rohi, who christened modern Afghanistan as Boh.  Currently, they are the inhabitants of the Haryana State where Agrayas (modern Agrawals) are represented by Maharaja Agrasen. There are also members of the Vaish communities, engaged in commercial activities but competent enough to perform the role of soldiers both by choice and otherwise.

The origin of castes is lost in obscurity. We find its mention in the Gita.  Greek philosopher Plato   also divides the State into three classes, castes, or professions, namely, philosopher-rulers, warriors and masses.  The underlying principle of this categorization is division of labour.  Originally the castes were professional and subsequently became hereditary.  The system was evolved to keep the social fabric in harmonious condition; but in later ages it became divisive force. The original designers built the edifice of caste on the secure foundations of obligations; the lesser men who came after produced a caricature on the shifting sands of rights.

Modern statesmen and thinkers don’t have the same views about the caste system as it prevailed in the times of Maharaja Porus.  Today Kshtriyas are not only warriors but all sorts of businessmen, industrialists, educators, scientists, technologists, bureaucrats, and what not.  They are omnipresent in the whole world, contributing to the prosperity of those countries as well as helping their motherland in whatever way they can.

The question how is Maharaja Porus helpful in their present status both in their native land and abroad.  The answer is that Maharaja is probably the first example of unflinching loyalty to his native land.  He is a peerless model of bravery, courage and disinclination towards the tendency of surrender before any superior force or compelling circumstances.   These virtues of old dauntless Kshtriyas help their modern counterparts in almost every profession, vocation or sphere of life.  It is in this sense that Maharaja Porus is a constant source of inspiration to those who historically belong to the lineage of his caste and cult. 

 

A CURSORY LOOK AT THE IMPACT OF PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS

 

A CURSORY LOOK AT THE IMPACT OF PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS

Since it is not significantly germane to our main theme , we catalogue here the names of some of the Persian and Greek rulers starting from the 6^th century B.C. for which our source is the writings of Greek historians such as Herodotus, Strabo and Arrian. 

Though there had been some trade link between India and Persia in ancient times, the political contact is believed to have commenced with the Persian emperor Cyrus (588-530 B.C.) and it was carried on by the succeeding rulers like Cyrus’s son Cambyses (530-522 B.C.), Darius –I (522-486 B.C.), followed by King Darius-III, also called Darius the Great (381 BC-330 BC) who brought North Punjab under his rule. It is also claimed by some historians that North-Western India inclusive of North Punjab became a part of the Persian empire and remained so till 330 B.C. around the time when Alexander the Great invaded India in 326 BCE.

What is historically important is that the presence of the Persian rulers introduced the Arabic script which later on took the form of Kharoshthi script.

The Persians also influenced Indian Art, Architecture, currency and festivals.  Persian influence on Architecture is event in the rock-inscriptions of Asoka and the palaces of Mauryan emperors.

It is however most significantly noteworthy that the study of Persian language and literature became indispensable during the Mughal Times who made Persian their official language.  This language became a component of the curriculum in schools and colleges and a number of renowned poets and writers of India used this language for social communication and creative writing. Indian poet Mirza Ghalib (1797-1869) is a prominent example of this historical fact. Another very great poet Sir Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) also wrote his philosophical long poems like The Secrets of the Self  in the Persian language.   

As regards Greek rulers beginning with Demetrius I (200-190),  the number is very large,  important among them being  Antimachus I (185-170 BCE), Demetrius II (175-170 BCE), Antimachus II (160-155 BCE), Demetrius III (100 BCE), Apollodotus II (75-70 CE). Strato II, Strato III (25 BCE-10 CE), etc. Around 100 B.C. they had under their rule Taxila, Chiniot, Sialkot, etc. The languages spoken during their reign were Greek, Pali, Sanskrit and Prakrit.  However, unlike Persian, the study of Greek language and literature (except mainly in English translation)  did not continue to interest  the  people at  large, the  intelligentsia and the ruling class. 

The Greek rulers were monarchs and were succeeded by their own sons or any other eligible person of their family hierarchy.

  The influence of the Greek rule was seen in religion and philosophy, languages, symbols, currency and architecture.

  There is also some evidence which shows that the members of the Greek ruling family married  women of the  Indian royal families.

  Lastly, we find that the Indian invasion of Alexander the Great put almost a complete end to the invasions of the Greek rulers.

MORE ABOUT PORUS AND HIS TIMES

 

MORE ABOUT PORUS AND HIS TIMES  

            The ancient history of India about which some written or oral record is available starts with King Manu, the originator of the solar Dynasty.  He is said to have begotten nine sons.  But for our purposed his daughter is more important who mothered a son called Pauruvavas Alia whose progeny created independent principalities at Kannaul and Banares (now known s Varanasi). There was at that time another conqueror Yayati who ruled over a large kingdom and had it divided among his five sons --- Yadu, Druhyu, Andu, Yadu and Puru. This Puru got as his share the territory which lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. He is known as Porus in Greek history.  Mythologically, if not historically, Porus belonged to the tribe of the Vedic Purus.

            Ancient history also mentions another famous king Kuru who extended his realm from Prayaga to Kurukshetra and whose successors were  known as Kurus.  There seems to be an unauthentic link of togetherness among the Kurus and the Purus who ruled over the North-West, the Panjab, and  the then United provinces (now Uttar Padesh) right up to Prayaga.

            In the annals of that time there is also the mention of one Darius III, who was the last king of the Achaemenid of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC.  According to a legend this Persian king was hunted down by Alexander after the battle of Gaugamela in which he had been wounded by an arrow and later passed away in 486 of failing health.

            The un-researched contemporary history of that time also mentions a reigning king called by the Greeks as Assakenos.  There is also a mention of a small hill-state known as Nysa at the foot of Mt.Meros between the Kabul river and the Indus. If we go by the record left by the Greek historian Arrian the Nysaeans did not belong to India.  They had descended from the migrants who had come to India with Dionysius, the Greek historian and rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Caesar Augustus.

            For our purpose, the most important place in the time of Porus was Taxila (Takshasila).  It lay between the Indus and Jhelum. Taxila was a well-ruled large city.  It formed the eastern part of the old kingdom of Gandhara.  In 327 B.C. its throne was occupied by Hyparch or Basileus whom the Greeks called Taxiles. The ruler of this kingdom was invited by Alexander who came not with any hostile feelings but those of friendship and honoured Alexander with precious  gifts.

            One more contemporary was Abhisara whose kingdom lay amidst the mountains of the Taxila territory and touched even Punch (in Kashmir) and the Hazara district of North-West Frontier Province. This ruler is believed to have offered his support to Alexander, but did not  do so and sided with Porus.

            The territory of Maharaja Porus lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab, covering the modern districts of Gujarat and Shahpur. According to the Greek historian, geographer and philosopher Strabo 63 B.C.---23 A.D. Porus had 300 cities under his conrol and his army comprised more than 50,000 soldiers, about 3,000 horses, above 1,000 chariots and 130 elephants.

            There were quite a few more kings ruling over their respective territories (see the annexed maps) whom we can safely leave out because our aim is to enlighten our readers about the unique bravery and patriotism of Maharaja Porus at the time of Alexander’s invasion.  We also want to emphasize  that most of  the contemporaries of Maharaja Porus were self-centred and  were  interested only in  their own safety and the security of their kingdoms and for that matter they did not hesitate even to shake hands with Alexander and please him with all sorts of gifts and honours.

            An important part  of our aim is  to highlight the fact that Maharaja Porus was a Sabharwal Kshtriya and he performed his duties as a true  Kshtriya with full loyalty as are spelled out  in the history of Hinduism and the holy Gita which came right from the lips of Lord Krishna himself  in the battle of the Mahabharfata.

            For the enlightenment of our readers, we close this chapter with the listing of the salient duties of a true  Kshtriya which Maharaja Porus was and will always be remembered like that  : ----

A true  Kshtriya is the guardian of society, its protector and preserver. He is the soldier who fights for the freedom of the race and the prefect who keeps the peace of the land.  He has to save the social polity from alien domination and internal dissentions. His duties are: heroism, vigour, firmness, resourcefulness, dauntlessness in battle, generosity and majesty.

EXTRACTS FROM TAGORE’S GITANJALI

 

 

EXTRACTS FROM TAGORE’S GITANJALI

 

THOU hast made me endless, such is thy pleasure.  This frail  vessel thou emptiest again and again, and fillest it ever with fresh life.

 

This little flute of a reed thou hast carried over hills and dales and has breathed through it melodies eternally new.

 

At the immortal touch of thy hands my little heart loses its limits in joy and gives birth to utterance ineffable.

 

Thy infinite gifts come to me only on these very small hands of mine.  Ages pass, and still thou pourest, and still there is room to fill.

 

                                                                ----

 

Life of my life, I shall ever try to keep my body pure, knowing that thy living touch is upon all my limbs.

 

I shall ever try to keep all untruths out from my thoughts, knowing that thou art that truth which had kindled the light of reason in my mind.

 

I shall ever try to drive all evils away from my heart and keep my love in flower, knowing that thou hast thy seat in the inmost shrine of my heart.

 

And it shall be my endeavour to reveal thee in my actions, knowing it is thy power gives me strength to act.

 

                                                                                ----

 

Here is thy footstool and there rest thy feet where live the poorest, and lowliest, and lost.

 

When I try to bow to thee, my obeisance cannot reach down to the depth where thy feet rest among the poorest, and lowliest, and lost.

 

Pride can never approach to where thou walkest in thy clothes of the humble among the poorest, and lowliest, and lost.

 

My heart can n ever find its way to where thou keepest company with the companionless among the poorest, the lowliest, and the lost.

 

                                                                                -----

 

The time that my journey takes is long and the way of it long.

 

I came out on the chariot of the first gleam of light, and pursued my voyage through the wilderness of worlds leaving my track on many a star and planet.

 

It is the most distant course that comes nearest to thyself, and that training is the most intricate which leads to the utter simplicity of a tune.

 

The traveler has to knock at every alien door to come to his own, and one has to wander through all the outer worlds to reach the innermost shrine at the end.

 

My eyes strayed far and wide before I shut them and said ‘Here art thou!’

 

The quest and the cry ‘Oh, where?’ melt into tears of a thousand streams and deluge the world with the flood of the assurance ‘I am!”

 

                                                                ----

 

The song that I came to sing remains unsung to this day.

 

I have spent my days in stringing and in unstringing my instrument.

 

The time has not come true, the words have not been rightly set; only there is the agony of wishing in my heart.

 

The blossom has not opened, only the wind is sighing by.

 

I have not seen his face, nor have I listened to his voice; only I have heard his gentle footsteps from the road before my house.

 

The livelong day has passed in spreading his seat on the floor; but the lamp has not been lit and I cannot ask him into my house.

 

I live in the hope of meeting with him; but this meeting is not yet.

 

                                                                                -----

 

My desires are many and my cry is pitiful, but ever didst thou save me by hard refusals; and this strong mercy has been wrought into my life through and through.

 

Day by day thou art making me worthy of the simple, great gifts that thou gavest to me unasked --- this sky and the light, this body and the life, and the mind === saving me from perils of overmuch desire.

 

There are times when I languidly linger and times when I awaken and hurry in search of my goal; but cruelly thou hidest thyself from before me.

 

Day by day thou art making me worthy of thy full acceptance by refining me ever and anon, saving me from perils of weak, uncertain desire.

 

                                                                                -----

 

I have had my invitation to this world’s festival, and thus my life has been blessed.  My eyes have seen and my ears have heard.

 

It was my part at this feast to play upon my instrument, and I have done all I could.

 

Now, I ask, has the time come at last when I may go in and see thy face and offer thee my silent salutation?

 

                                                                                -----

 

In the deep shadows of the rainy July, with secret steps, thou walkest, silent as night, eluding all watchers.

 

Today the morning has closed its eyes, heedless of the insistent calls of the loud east wind, and a thick veil has been drawn over the ever-wakeful blue sky.

 

The woodlands have hushed their songs, and doors are all shut at every house.  Thou art the solitary wayfarer in this deserted street.  Oh my only friend, my best beloved, the gates are open in my house --- do not pass by like a dream.

 

Are thou abroad on this stormy night on the journey of love, my friend?  The sky groans like one in despair.

 

I have no sleep tonight.  Ever and again I open my door and look out on the darkness, my friend!

 

I can see nothing before me.  I wonder where lies thy path!

 

By what dim shore of the ink-black river, by what far edge of the frowning forest, through what mazy depth of gloom art thou threading thy course to come to me, my friend?

 

 

                                                                                                -----

LIGHT, oh where is the light?  Kindle it with the burning fire of desire!

 

There is the lamp but never a flicker of a flame --- is such thy fate, my heart?

 

Ah, death were better by far for thee!

 

Misery knocks at thy door, and her message is that thy lord is wakeful, and he calls thee to the love-tryst through the darkness of night.

 

They sky is overcast with clouds and the rain is ceaseless.  I know not what this is that stirs in me --- I know not its meaning.

 

A moment’s flash of lightning drags shows a deeper gloom on my sight, and my heart gropes for the path to where the music of the night calls me.

 

Light, oh where is the light!  Kindle it with the burning fire of desire!  It thunders and the wind rushes screaming through the void.  The night is black as a black stone.  Let not the hours pass by in the dark.  Kindle the lamp of love with thy life.

 

                                                                                ----

 

OBSTINATE are the trammels, but my heart aches when I try to break them.

 

Freedom is all I want, but to hope for it I feel ashamed.

 

I m certain that priceless wealth is in thee, and that thou art my best friend, but I have not the heart to sweep away the tinsel that fills my room.

 

The shroud that covers me is a shroud of dust and death; I hate it, yet hug it in love.

 

My debts are large, my failures great; my shame secret and heavy; yet when I come to ask for my good, I quake in fear lest my prayer be granted.

MAHARAJA PORUS OUTSMARTS HIS RIVALS

        MAHARAJA PORUS OUTSMARTS HIS RIVALS

                                  It was Greek philosopher Plato (421-348 B.C) who said that either philosophers should be kings or kings should be philosophers. It is   a remarkable statement which in simple terms means that a king should be an intelligent person having the same wisdom which is expected of a philosopher.

                                    The Indian philosopher Kautilya whom we have mentioned earlier at many a place also has his own concept of a king. Where he differs from Porus is that he also believes in the divine origin of the king.  As such the  king cannot be defied or disrespected. His order is God’s order.  However, his foremost duty is to protect his people from all sorts of calamities including war

                                    It is a fact of Indian history both ancient and thereafter that the Indian kings did not fight a foreign invader unitedly.  Each king was exclusively concerned with the protection of his own people and territory.  This trait also generated hostility and rivalry among them. Some of them aligned themselves with the foreign invader against the naïve rulers and thus did not fulfil the duty of a protector which was mandatory rather then optional.  We find this tendency of the so-called Rajas and Maharajas  even in the  Mughal and the  British period of history in India.

                                    When Alexander attacked India Maharaja Porus had to face the manoeuvres of more than a couple of rivals.  The first one was his own nephew who was his namesake and to differentiate him from the Maharaja was called Junior Porus.  According to the Greek historian Diodoros, Siculus

Porus had conquered the territory between the Chenab and the Ravi rivers and appointed his nephew its governor. However, this nephew turned to be rebellious and endeavoured to become an independent ruler, though he could not cause any notable harm to the position of his warrior uncle.

                                    The second rival was quite formidable.  He was Ambhi Kumar, King of Gandhara. His territory lay between the northern banks of the Jhelum and Kandhar of Afghanistan.  Gandhar was a prosperous kingdom and was in those days also famous for the unparallel University of Takshashila or Taxila for education and other related purposes.   It is said that Gandhar had a vast network of roads which connected India with international trade routes or the Silk Road.

                                    King Ambhi Kumar was a hostile rival of Maharaja Porus.  When Alexander attacked India, he did not join hands with Maharaja Porus to encounter Alexander as joint defenders of Indian territory and being treacherous enough in his own selfish interest,  he unethically offered him logistic help as well as honoured him with precious gifts in the form elephants, horses, sheep and even golden currency of his kingdom.

                                    Alexander welcomed the support offered by this unpatriotic and cowardly king because it benefitted him.  But later on we learn in certain accounts that Alexander found the moves of Ambhi unfriendly and called him a traitor.  Students of history both agree and disagree with this allegation.  However, one cannot refute the fact that Porus watched all such movements of his potent as well as impotent rivals, showed adequate patience and continued to make his own plans of engaging Alexander single-handedly like a true Indian patriot and a brave king for whom the freedom of the motherland was more important than any profitable selfish end.

                        So ultimately none of the neighbouring kings of the time was able to match the kingly qualities, the patriotic intentions and the matchless war skills of Maharaja Porus.  He fought the battle of the Punjab alone with his full might and main and earned for himself the title of King of Kings in world history.

                        It is controversial whether Maharaja Porus defeated Alexander or Alexander defeated Maharaja Porus .  This we shall examine in another chapter and will prefer to go by the majority view of historians rather than any solitary standpoint .

                        One fact however is certainly undeniable and that is when Maharaja Porus stood before Alexander after the military encounter was over, he was every inch a brave king.  This by itself was a form of victory over his enemy. 

SOLAR DYNASTY – WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

 

             SOLAR DYNASTY – WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

Maharaja Porus was a Kshtriya King of Sabharwal caste.  He belonged to the Solar Dynasty, not the Lunar Dynasty as some historians have claimed.

            The kings of the Lunar dynasty worship the moon, but those of the solar dynasty are the devotees of the Sun.

            According to HHinduism the Sun is the object of worship in the Saura or the Saurya cult. The name of the cult is derived from ‘which means the sun. The phenomena associated with the sun inspired the Vedic poets to conceive of several solar deities, to whom the name ‘Adityas’ is given.

            Originally. ‘Adityas’ meaning ‘sons of Aditi’ (the unbounded), was the group name of all the gods.  But subsequently, the term got restricted to its denotation and came to mean only the solar deities. Of these divinities, the most important are   Surya and Savitr.

            Surya is a very concrete solar deity, as he is the personification of the orb of the sun. In the Vedic hymns, Surya is described as the eye of the gods.  He is far-seeing, all-seeing, the spy of the entire world. He beholds all beings, and stands as the witness of the good and bad deeds of mortals. He arouses men from their slumber and impels them to activity.  He is the soul of all that moves or is stationary.   He is the preeminent god of light. Savitr is the god who stimulates and stirs the sun that sets. His striking feature is the golden colour.  He is golden-eyed, golden-handed, golden-tongued. The well-known Gayatri-mantra is addressed to him. The seer of this mantra meditates on the most resplendent and adorable light of Savitr, and appeals to him for the guidance of thoughts and actions on the right paths.

            The source of the information given above is several books on Hinduism and Sulka-yajurveda.